Native American Foods: Foods That Originated in the Americas

Plants Indigenous to the Americas

Corn (originated in Mexico), Tomato (South American Andes), Potato (Bolivia, Peru, Chile), Chocolate (Mexico; Yucatan, Guatemala), Vanilla (Mexico and Guatemala), Capsicum aka Chili and Sweet Bell Pepper (Mexico), Paprika (Mexico), Squash aka Marrow, Pumpkins (Mexico), Zucchini, Acorn squash, Butternut squash, Beans, Pinto bean, Avocado (Mexico and Central America), Cacahuate aka Peanut (Paraguay, Bolivia, Mexico), Chicle (chewing gum), Black raspberry (western coast of North America; from British Colombia down to Mexico; another genus species is also native to eastern North America), Pineapple (Brazil, Paraguay, Guadeloupe), Nopales, Tunas, Jicama, Papaya, Guayaba, Sunflower seeds (Peru, Mexico), Cassava, Chaya, Tepary Bean, Tobacco (Peru), Rubber (Mexico; Veracruz and Tabasco), Dahlia (Mexico), Avocado, Marigold, Cashew (central America), Chicle, Agave, Black raspberries, Nopal, Wild Rice, and Elderberries.

Animals Indigenous to the Americas

Turkey, White-tailed Deer, Polar Bears, Rattlesnakes, Coyotes, Bobcats, American Alligators, Crocodiles, Bears, Wolves, Cougars, Brown Recluse Spiders, Andean Condor, Bobcat, Bald Eagle, American Bison, Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake, Elk, American Black Bear, Woodchuck (also called groundhog), Mountain Beaver, American Beaver, North American Porcupine, Canadian Lynx, Kit Fox, Swift Fox, Common Raccoon, Black-footed Ferret, Fisher, American Badger, Striped Skunk, North American River Otter, Mule Deer, Pronghorn, Armadillos, Prairie Dogs, California Condor, Bull Snake, Desert Tortoise, Frogs, Geckoes, Gila Monster, Iguana, Newt, Painted Turtle, Salamander, Snapping Turtle, Spring Peeper Frog, Toad, Arctic Tern, Atlantic Puffin, Bald Eagle, Barn Owl, Black-Necked Stilt, Blue Jay, Bluebird, California Quail, Canada Goose, Cardinal, Chickadee, Common Egret, Crow, Falcon, Flamingo, Golden Eagle, Golden Plover, Goldfinch, Great Blue Heron, Great Horned Owl, Grouse, Roadrunner, Hummingbird, Junco, Larks, Loon, Magpie, Mallard Duck, Marbled Murrelet, Meadowlark, Mockingbird, Northern Spotted Owl, Oriole, Pelican, Pigeon, Prairie Chicken, Ptarmigan, Red Tailed Hawk, Robin, Snow Goose, Snowy Owl, Sparrow, Trumpeter Swan, Vulture, Whooping Crane, Woodpecker. California Sea Lions, Crayfish, Elephant Seal, Harbor Seal, Harp Seal, Manatee, Northern Fur Seal, Pupfish, Salmon, Sea Lion, Seal, Trout, Ants, Assassin Bug, Bee, Black Widow Spider, Cricket, Dragonfly, Firefly, Fly, Grasshopper, Harlequin Bug, Lady Bug, Monarch Butterfly, Moth, Oregon Silverspot Butterfly, Painted Lady Butterfly, Pond Skater, Praying Mantis, Scorpion, Spider, Tiger Swallowtail Butterfly, Viceroy Butterfly, Wasp, Woolly Bear Caterpillar, Yellow Jacket, Zebra Longwing Butterfly, Zebra Swallowtail Butterfly, Arctic Fox, Arctic Hare, Arctic Wolf, Armadillo, Badger, Beaver, Bighorn Sheep, Bison, Black Bear, Black-footed Ferret, Bobcat, Brown Bear, Caribou, Chipmunk, Coatmundi, Collared Peccary, Dall Sheep, Deer, Donkey, Ermine, Flying Squirrel, Gray Wolf, Grizzly Bear, Hyracotherium, Jack Rabbit, Kangaroo Rat, Lemming, Lynx, Mammoth, Mastodon, Mink, Mole, Moose, Mountain Lion, Mouse, Musk Ox, Muskrat, Mustang, Nine-banded armadillo, Opossum, River Otter, Sea Otter, Pika, Porcupine, Pronghorn, Rabbit, Red Fox, Red Wolf, Saber-toothed Cat, Shrew, Skunk, Squirrel, Wolverine, Piranha (Pygocentrus Piraya), Anaconda, Capybara, Giant Tortoise (Galapagos Islands (Ecuador)).

Most native American animals sourced from here: http://www.k12tlc.net/content/animalna.htm 10 Most Badass: http://gadling.com/2009/11/09/top-ten-most-badass-animals-native-to-the-usa/

Dinosaurs Indigenous to the Americas

Acrocanthosaurus, Albertosaurus, Allosaurus, Ankylosaurus, Apatosaurus, Barosaurus, Coelophysis, Deinonychus, Desmatosuchus, Dilophosaurus, Dimetrodon, Diplodocus, Hadrosaurus, Ichthyornis, Lambeosaurus, Maiasaura, Ornitholestes, Parasaurolophus, Pteranodon, Stegosaurus, Thescelosaurus, Trachodon, Tyrannosaurus Rex, Triceratops, Utahraptor.

The native Americans had a more advanced farming techniques than the Europeans when Columbus came crashing down on them. Tomato, potato, squash, bean, corn, peanut, hot pepper, cacao, vanilla, pineapple, and turkey were all unknown in Europe, Asia and Africa before Christopher Columbus. Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the New World had forever changed the western world. The introduction of new lands, peoples, foods, and goods led to incredible changes in the societies of the Old World. According to the book “Iberian Technology in Nautical Sciences, Cartography and Ship Development from 1400-1600”, the influx of new goods into Europe was highly influenced by Iberian nautical technology of the time. Foods and goods from the Americas had a unique effect on European societies, particularly in Spain and Portugal. The introduction of American “miracle foods” was instrumental in pulling the Iberian population out of the famine and hunger that was common in the 16th century. Maize (corn), potatoes, turkey, squash, beans, and tomatoes were all incorporated into existing Spanish and Portuguese cuisine styles. Equally important was the impact of coffee and sugar cane growing in the New World (despite having already existed in the Old World). Along with the impact from food, the introduction of new goods (such as tobacco) also altered how Iberian society worked. One can categorize the impacts of these New World goods and foods based on their influence over the state, the economy, religious institutions, and the culture of the time. The power and influence of the state grew as external entities (i.e. other European nations) became dependent on Spain for these New Goods in the early 16th century. The economies of both Portugal and Spain saw an enormous increase in power as a result of trading these American goods. While the influence on religious thought was influenced by the introduction of new people, the new foods and goods also played a role in shaping religion at the time. Iberian culture at the time was very influenced by New World goods, as is illustrated in poetry, paintings, and novels from the time. Mesoamerican foods and goods had an enormous influence on Iberian society in the 16th century.

The Potato

The Potato. Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) were first cultivated by South American Indians in Bolivia, Peru and Chile. The first written trace of the patatas were found in a delivery slip dated 11/25/1567 for potatoes grown in the Canary Islands and destined to Antwerp. In 1574, another boat coming from Las Palmas delivers potatoes to Rouen. It appears that the first plantations on the European continent go back to 1570. The potato is introduced to Germany from Spain during the Thirty Years' War. Parmentier discovers it there and promotes it in Paris in 1783. (Who hasn't heard the anecdote about the guarded patch made to encourage theft?). The Incas used the potatoes to make chuno, which is a floury substance. The chuno was used as a substitution for wheat in bread. The potato first arrived in Europe in the the mid 1500's. The English explorers were the ones to introduce potatoes to England and this popular food soon spread to Ireland and Scotland. In fact, the potato became so widespread and popular that in many countries it became the staple crop. The potato grew very well in Ireland ,and the Irish poor became dependent on it. In today's cooking, potatoes are used for french fries and potato chips, some of America's favorite foods.

The Bean

Phaseolus vulgaris is a leguminous plant native to the South of Mexico, Yucatan and the warmer parts of Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru. Called Ayacotl in Central America, the common green bean landed in Europe in the 16th century; canon Piero Valeriano started growing it in Italy in 1528, starting with a few seeds offered to Pope Clement VII. In the 18th century, numerous varieties of beans were already found at the markets in the Languedoc region of France. The bean adapted so well to the European climates that is was soon thought to be indigenous. Black-eyed peas was the only bean type leguminous plant native to the Old World. It was already grown in Italy by the Romans and called Phasiolum. This pea, which is somewhat smaller than the seeds of the American variety of beans, is now practically totally forgotten in Europe. It is still cultivated in parts of Italy, Spain ... and the United States. The traditional French cassoulet doesn't go back to the Hundred Year's War, as the legend would have it. It is in the 18th century that the mulard mule duck, used for duck confit, appeared and that the white bean of the cassoulet developed.

Chocolate

Chocolatl was a drink which was consumed by royalty and the elite in Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztecs, before the Spanish conquered Mexico. It was served with water (i.e.without milk), flavoured with vanilla, spices, chili and sometimes honey; it was a bitter drink. Cacao beans were currency throughout the Mesoamerican world (Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Belize). There is an ancient Mayan myth that says that cacao beans were given to men by the Gods. The Mayas celebrated the new year with the Possum God carrying on its back the Rain God with an offering of cacao beans. The Possum God and of the cacao beans as taken from the Dresden Codex can be seen here. Chocolate is native to the tropical rain forests of Yucatan and Guatemala. The Mayas and the Aztecs roasted the seeds, ground them and mixed the powder with boiling water, spiced with hot pepper, or with musk and honey, or with corn flower. They would then drink the tchacahoua (Mayan) or the tchocoatl (Aztec) of aphrodisiac repute. The Spanish later replaced the hot pepper by vanilla, sugar and cream. The drink brought back to Spain by Cortez in 1527 became "chocolate". It was the object of conversations throughout Europe by 1585. The Maya Indians of Central America and the Aztec Indians of Mexico were the first cultivators of cacao beans. (These beans grow on a tree). However, it was not until the beans were taken back to the old world that the chocolate we know today was made. The Aztecs ate the chocolate and drank the chocolate without any sugar. The Europeans were the ones who added the sugar and milk and gave it the taste that we all know. In 1528, cacao was introduced to Spain and in 1606 cacao was introduced to Italy.

Corn

Maize was domesticated in Western Mexico and Mesoamerican cultures expanded wherever it was cultivated. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticated_plants_of_Mesoamerica. Maize is also associated with festival and feast foods. Before it was domesticated and became a main crop, maize was used as a basis for beer. Beer was transported in decorated vessels and ceramic pottery. These vessels could be taken to social and ritual occasions. Ritual events or festivals, such as ball games, feasts, and calendar turnings, involved the royal members who took part in the sacrifice of blood-letting and piercing as repayment to the gods for having given maize to the people that year. Another example of how maize played such a large role in Mesoamerica, is when deities were portrayed with maize. Quetzalcoatl is connected as being a creator of humans in Mesoamerica. This deity is also seen as the one who took maize from the underworld and gave it to humans in the present world. Corn was the staple food of the South and Central American Indians, eaten in the form of gruel or tortillas, like wheat, made into bread, was the staple food of the Europeans. Maize started to be grown in Lebanon, Persia and Egypt, in 1520. The Portuguese then introduced it to Africa. It later reached Europe, through the Balkans. http://www.oldcook.com/en/history-products_america

Pepper

Capsicum is the generic name of the chili pepper plant, which is a native domesticated plant from Mesoamerica. Capsaicin reduces the bacterial load when something can not be refrigerated. In Mesoamerica, the capsaicin spice was also used to relieve joint pain, and as an intestinal stimulant, so capsicum is also known as a medicinal plant. The peppers from capsicum plants can be used in a fresh or dried state. A dried chile pepper is stronger and more effective than a fresh chile pepper.

It is attested that paprika was present in Hungary in 1604. The Turks would be the ones to have introduced it, through Bulgaria, as a substitute for black pepper. Paprika was used as a medicine to fight cholera during the 1831 epidemic and then became an emblematic specialty in Hungary. You find it everywhere, embroidered, sculpted, on earthenware, in frescos or paintings. Paprika would be derived from the Serbo-Croatian word papar meaning pepper.

Pumpkin

Pumpkin: seeds from related plants have been found in Mexican tombs which date back to 7000 BC

Squash. Pumpkins, zucchini, acorn squash, butternut squash, others. The large cucurbitaceae family comes from America: cucurbita pepo, the pumpkin, comes from Mexico and the South of the United States; cucurbita maxima, Hubbard squash, comes from the mild climates of South America (Chile, Argentina, Peru, Bolivia); cucurbita moschata, butternut squash, comes from the Northwest of Colombia and Mexico. Courgettes, or zucchinis, are a recent variety of cucurbita pepo. The word courgette, for a small courge picked before full growth, was included in the French Larousse dictionary in 1929. Squash: The squash is native to the Western Hemisphere. The Indians introduced the squash to Columbus and his followers. The name squash comesfrom askutasquash, a Narragansett Indian word that means eaten uncooked. In todays cooking, squash is eaten cooked and uncooked, and in many other ways. There are many different varieties of squash.

Peanut

The Peanut. Native to Mexico. The peanut is a legumuminous plant (Arachis hypogea) native to Mexico. It was called tlacacahualt by the Aztecs, which gave cacahouète in French and cacahuete in Spanish. Because, in botanical terms, “nut” specifically refers to indehiscent fruit, the peanut is not technically a nut, but rather a legume. Peanuts are often served in a similar manner to true nuts in many western cuisines, and are often referred to as a nut in common English. The peanut is native to South America and the Indians of South America were growing peanuts 1000 years ago.One use of peanuts was that the settlers fed the peanuts to their hogs. Today peanuts are eaten alone, in candy, cookies, pies, peanut butter, and many more delicious foods. However, the oil that is derived from peanuts is used the most. Peanuts help to replenish the nitrogen in the soil.

Tomato

The tomato was introduced into Europe through Naples, then part of Aragon, from where it went up to Genoa before reaching Nice and Provence. According to Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, tomato was introduced in Languedoc in 1590. The tomato was introduced into Europe through Naples, then part of Aragon, from where it went up to Genoa before reaching Nice and Provence. According to Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, tomato was introduced in Languedoc in 1590. Actually, it has taken some time for tomato to become an accepted vegetable in all of Europe. In 1760, the Vilmorin Andrieux catalogue classified tomato as an ornamental plant. Only in 1778 did it become a garden plant. In 1785 it is the gardening encyclopedia Le bon Jardinier that makes tomato a vegetable. As with potatoes, it was only during the French Revolution that tomatoes really started being eaten. Two restaurants runned by Provencal chefs, Les Trois frères provençaux and Le Boeuf à la mode, put it on the menu.

Vanilla

Vanilla planifolia is a tropical orchid, a parasitic liana of the jungle trees of Central America and the north of South America. Vanilla is the fruit of this orchid. The pods are boiled then dried; giving the black fragrant sticks we buy today. Cultivation of vanilla fragrans, the most fragrant species, was difficult to adapt away from its native area where no apidae meliponinae, the indigenous stingless bee, would pollinate it. Artificial fertilization was imagined around 1830. Vanilla originated in Mexico and was grown there for hundreds of years. This plant produces fruit and the extract is what is used for flavoring chocolate, ice cream, pastry , and candy. The process by which the flavor is extracted by is long, complicated, and expensive. Vanilla, a flavoring derived from the orchids of the genus Vanilla, was first brought to Spain in the 1520s by Cortez following his conquest of the Aztec Empire. The Aztecs had started cultivating the plant following their subjugation of the Totonec peoples of present-day Mexico. Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people cultivated the vine of the vanilla orchid, called tlilxochitl by the Aztecs, and Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortésis credited with introducing both vanilla and chocolate to Europe in the 1520s. The Totonac people, who inhabit the East Coast of Mexico in the present-day state of Veracruz, were the first to cultivate vanilla. According to Totonac mythology, the tropical orchid was born when Princess Xanat, forbidden by her father from marrying a mortal, fled to the forest with her lover. The lovers were captured and beheaded. Where their blood touched the ground, the vine of the tropical orchid grew

Tobacco

Smoking has been going on for hundreds of years. In fact, American Indians were smoking long before Columbus arrived. When Columbus saw these neat seeds, he brought some with him back to Europe. Farmers planted these seeds and began to grow tabacco as a relaxation medicine. Spaniards and some Europeans smoked hand rolled cigarrets in the 1600's. However, smoking did not become popular untill the 1850's. In 1560, Jean Nicot, a French diplomat introduced tobacco to France. Tobacco's botanical name, Nicotiana, comes from Jean's last name, Nicot. Jon Rolfe was the one to bring tobacco seeds to Virginia and it became a very important crop in the southern United States. At first, tobacco was grown in the American colonies and then exported to England. Then the United States began to manufacture smoking Tabacco, chewing tabacco, and snuff. Now smoking is a very controrversial subject because it has been proven to be hazardous to your health. Columbus' sailors find Arawak and Taino Indians smoking tobacco. Some take up the habit and begin to spread it worldwide. Amerigo Vespucci noticed that the American Indians had a curious habit of chewing green leaves mixed with a white powder. They carried two gourds around their necks -- one filled with leaves, the other with powder. First, they put leaves in their mouths. Then, after dampening a small stick with saliva, they dipped it in the powder and mixed the adhering powder with the leaves in their mouths, making a kind of chewing tobacco (Imperial Tobacco Canada,http://www.imperialtobaccocanada.com/e/world/history/index.html).

Pineapple

Pineapple: Columbus and the explorers with him were the first Europeans to taste this fruit. Pineapples were found throughout South and Central America and in the West Indies. The explorers took the fruit to Europe and planted it. The pineapple became the favorite fruit of royalty and the wealthy. Today we use pineaple for cattle feed, meat tenderizers, and medicines. Columbus encountered the pineapple in 1493 on the leeward island of Guadeloupe (home of the Blanchet Plantation). He called it piña de Indes, meaning "pine of the Indians,"[18] and brought it back with him to Europe[19] thus making the pineapple the first bromeliad to leave the New World.

Sunflower

Sunflower: The sunflower originated in North America and was introduced to Europe in the 1500's. The sunflower is a bright yellow flower whose center contains seeds. These seeds are very rich in protein and are were used for snackfood and birdseed back then, as they are today. Since there are many types of sunflowers, one of the type's seeds contain up to 50% oil. 1/8 of vegetable oil is made up of sunflower seed oil. In fact, sunflower seed oil is at times used as a replacment for diesel fuel.

Quinine

Quinine: The 1600 Spanish explorers and missionaries discovered that Indians of South America used the bark of cinchoa trees as medicine. This medicine is the only known treatment for malaria. It reduces the fever of malaria and can even cure some types of the disease, when it is combined with other medicines. When the cinchoa trees began to die out during the 1800's, other ones were planted in India and Indonesia which kept these trees around.

Dahlia

Dahlia cultivated from original dahiaia of Mexico

Avacado

Avacado native to Mexico uses: Brazil- milkshakes and ice cream! Mexico- guacomole

Marigold

Spanish explorers brought marigolds to Europe in 1500's Some marigolds produce oil that repels nematodes, small worms that act as pests

Cashew

Native to Central America

Chicle

Chicle /ˈtʃɪkəl/ is a natural gum traditionally used in making chewing gum and other products. It is collected from several species of Mesoamerican trees in the Manilkara genus, including M. zapota, M. chicle, M. staminodella, and M. bidentata. The tapping of the gum is similar to the tapping of latex from the rubber tree: zig-zag gashes are made in the tree trunk and the dripping gum is collected in small bags. It is then boiled until it reaches the correct thickness. Locals who collect chicle are called chicleros. Historically, the Wrigley Company was a prominent user of this ingredient in the production of chewing gum. In response to a land reform law passed in Guatemala in 1952, which ended feudal work relations and expropriated unused lands and sold them to the indigenous and peasants, the Wrigley Gum Company discontinued buying Guatemalan chicle. Since it was the sole buyer of Guatemalan chicle, the government was forced to create a massive aid program for growers. By the 1960s, most chewing gum companies had switched from using chicle to butadiene-based synthetic rubber which was cheaper to manufacture. The only U.S. gum company still using chicle is Glee Gum.

Agave

Agave. Used for fiber for clothing and rope, and to make tequila!

Black raspberry

Black raspberry is a common name for three species of the genus Rubus: Rubus leucodermis, native to western North America. Rubus occidentalis, native to eastern North America. Rubus occidentalis is a species of Rubus native to eastern North America. Its common name black raspberry is shared with the closely related western American species Rubus leucodermis. Other names occasionally used include wild black raspberry, black caps, black cap raspberry, thimbleberry, and scotch cap. Rubus leucodermis (blackcap raspberry, black raspberry, whitebark raspberry, or blue raspberry, is a species of Rubusnative to western North America, from British Columbia, Canada south to California, New Mexico and Mexico. It is closely related to the eastern black raspberry Rubus occidentalis.

Nopal

Nopal (from the Nahuatl word nohpalli /noʔˈpalːi/ for the pads) (also known as the Prickly Pear cactus) is a species and an ingredient made from the Opuntia cacti, in the subfamily Opuntioideae. There are approximately one hundred and fourteen known species endemic to Mexico.

Rubber

Rubber was originally cultivated by the Olmec people of Mesoamerica. This was usually done by draining the sap from rubber trees. Rubber did not have an early noticeable impact on the Iberian people. The fact that the Pará rubber tree initially only grew in the Amazon Rainforest. It would not be until the 19th century that the tree was able to be grown in a non-Brazilian area.

Wild Rice

For these pages, wild rice refers to the genus Zizania. The Zizania wild rice should not be confused with the Oryza wild types, which are also referred to as wild rice (11, 14). The genera Oryza and Zizania are both from the Oryzeae tribe (22), but the term "wild rice" has stuck to the genus Zizania, even though it isn't technically a rice (5, 6, 11). Wild Rices belong to the genus Zizania, from the Greek Zizanion - a wild weedy grain that typically grew among wheat crops ( 3, 21). There are four species in this genus, three which are native to North America (Z. palustris, Z. aquatica, Z. texana), and one native to Asia (Z. latifolia) (11, 22). Z. palustris is the main species of wild rice harvested for food, and is the one most often thought of when the average person thinks about wild rice. Commonly confused with Z. palustris, Z. aquatica is a non-cultivated wild rice and its smaller seeds are not commonly used for food (8, 11). These two species are annual grasses (11). Many people use the terms interchangeably, but it is not accurate. Z. texana and Z. latifolia are both perennials. Neither species provides seeds harvested for food, however the stems of Z. latifolia are edible (21) (see Wild Rice Nutrition). The Zizania grown for grain - Z. palustris - is the focus of these Wild Rice pages, unless otherwise noted. Zizania palustris. Wild rice is one of two grains native to North America (the other being maize (22)), and grows mostly in shallow lake areas, rivers and streams (5, 11, 13, 22). It was a staple food for early North American people, who introduced it to European explorers (6, 8, 11, 12, 13, 22). It is also a staple for wild birds and waterfowl (12). Native Americans called it manomin, meaning good berry (11, 13, 22).

Historically wild rice has been harvested by hand in boats by knocking the grain into the canoe with a pole, and although most wild rice is now harvested mechanically it is still harvested by hand (by law) in Minnesota state waters (8, 11, 12, 22). The grains easily shatter, thus using this method requires multiple harvests during the ripening season, and makes mechanical harvesting difficult (8, 11, 12, 13).

Commercialization of wild rice began in earnest in the 1950's and 1960's after breeding efforts resulted in more shatter-resistant varieties, allowing for mechanical harvesting and crop expansion (11, 13). Not growing well in the hot south, wild rice is well adapted to northern latitudes (11). Today wild rice is grown in diked fields as well as in natural waters in the US and Canada (13), and researchers in Europe are investigating possible wild rice production there (13). California, Minnesota and Saskatchewan are the largest producers of wild rice (22).

Elderberries

Elderberries are one of the easiest and most versatile shrubs to grow in your edible landscape. These Central European and North American natives are often found growing wild along roadsides, forest edges, and abandoned fields. The prize for growing elderberries is the fragrant, edible flowers and the delicious fruits. The dark purple berries contain vitamins A and B, and more vitamin C than oranges. They are also high in cancer-fighting antioxidants. In fact, elderberry fruits have historically been used to treat many ailments, such as respiratory problems, colds, and flus. Plus, they are tasty when used in juices, jellies, jams, teas, pies, and wine. You can use the umbrella-shaped, elderberry blossoms for making a delicious fritters or even champagne (see recipe in this issue). And if you don't want to eat the berries, the birds certainly will love them.

Turkey

Turkey in English is dinde in French. Cortez ate the delicious bird in Aztec country, but when it was brought back to Europe, it was called poule d'Inde in French (India hen, as in the West Indies), and turkey in English. The marriage of King Charles IX in 1570 was the first official occasion in France with dinde served at the banquet. Turkey notably saved the Mayflower pilgrims from famine in November 1620, thus the Thanksgiving commemoration meal.

Some History of Food Preservation by Native Americans

There were four basic ways for people in ancient societies to find food: hunting and fishing, gathering, farming, and raising domesticated animals. Native Americans did all these things, but the first three were much more common. There were not many domesticated animals in North America before Europeans arrived-- only turkeys, ducks, and dogs, and most tribes did not eat dog meat (although some did.) In South America, llamas and guinea pigs were also raised by some tribes for their meat. Ruminant animals, such as moose, elk, caribou, deer, antelope and, of course, buffalo were the mainstay of the Amerindian diet, just as beef is the mainstay of the modern American diet. The difference is that the whole animal was eaten, not just the muscle meats.

Every American Indian tribe that we know of took part in hunting and fishing to get fresh meat to eat. The Inuit (Eskimos) and some Indian tribes of the far north relied almost entirely on hunting and fishing to survive. Some Native Americans were primarily big game hunters, migrating frequently to follow herds of bison or caribou. The Blackfoot and Sioux are two examples of big game hunting tribes. In tribes like these, large groups of Native Americans usually worked together to drive large animals into an ambush, a man-made pit, or over a cliff, sometimes setting controlled fires or building fences to cut off their escape. In other tribes, such as the Chippewa or Creek, each individual Native American hunter would stalk deer, rabbits or other game, or set snares or traps for them. In fishing tribes, Native American fishermen would either catch fish and hunt marine mammals from their canoes, or else set fish nets and wooden traps for them. The Tlingit and Salish are two examples of Northwest Indian tribes who got most of their meat through fishing. Native hunting and fishing weapons varied from tribe to tribe but the most common ones were bows and arrows, spears, harpoons, fish-hooks, and blowguns.

Farming was another very important source of American Indian food materials. Native agriculture was most advanced in what is now the southern United States, Mexico, and the Andean region of South America. Native Americans from those areas used special farming techniques like irrigation, terracing, crop rotation, and planting windbreaks to improve their farms, and they usually harvested enough crops to dry and store for the winter. Some examples of southern Native American tribes who were expert farmers included the Hopi, Navajo, and Cherokee tribes. Other tribes further to the north planted crops in garden plots in their villages but did not harvest enough to last the winter, so they would split up into hunting camps during that time instead. Examples of northern tribes who farmed this way included the Lenape and Iroquois tribes. Besides food crops, Native American farmers often grew cotton, hemp, tobacco, and medicinal plants.

Gathering is a general term for collecting food that grows wild in the environment. Sometimes this is a very basic sort of task, such as picking blueberries from a bush. Other times gathering can be complicated and requires special tools and training, such as tapping trees for maple syrup or grinding and leaching acorns into edible flour. The kinds of wild foods gathered by an Indian tribe and the tools they needed to do it with varied a lot depending on where the tribe lived. Usually Native Americans gathered wild foods in addition to hunting, fishing, or farming.

Sun drying was typically reserved for fruits, such as berries, tomatoes and as well as some meats. Sweet corn was also commonly dried on flattened racks in the sun to be later eaten as a sweet, earthy snack. Pemmican, or sun and air dried buffalo, elk or moose jerky, was one of the most essential preserved winter foods. The jerky was heavily fatted and often mixed with dried cranberries, cherries, blueberries or other wild edible berries, to make it more energy-packed and tasty. The Incas relied heavily on natural freeze drying (lyophilization). They learned that food stored in the frozen mountains in the Andes, which froze at night and was warmed by the sun during the day, dried faster. Natural smoke and salt were also common fish and red meat preservatives. Salted or unsalted meats were hung or racked in a tipi or shed smoking structure and slowly smoked with fragrant woods, like alder, mesquite or apple wood. Smoked meats are preserved by a combination of drying, cooking and aromatic smoke fixation, which chemically protects meats from spoilage. Once smoked, prepared meats were then hung for storage, often in communal buildings or storage houses.

Mesquite flour is a low-glycemic, gluten free, nutrient packed super-food. It is an excellent source of the amino acid lysine and is rich in calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, and zinc. This healthy flour is also high in both protein and fiber. Since mesquite flour supports stable blood sugar levels and takes longer to digest than wheat flour, it helps one to feel satisfied longer.

Blueberries are an antioxidant power house, containing high levels of anthocyanidins and ellagic acid. Antioxidants help to counteract free radical damage that can lead to cataracts, glaucoma, ulcers, heart disease, and cancer. These mighty berries are a good source of vitamin C, manganese, vitamin E, and both soluble and insoluble fiber. Moreover, blueberries improve and protect brain function.

Native Americans utilized the roots, leaves and bark of the sassafras tree in a variety of ways. Sassafras tea helps to detoxify the body and treats high blood pressure as an effective tonic. Additionally, this herb is a useful diuretic that eases symptoms of arthritis and rheumatic conditions. Sassafras also provides relief from gastrointestinal problems, kidney ailments, and troubles with the skin. Due to some controversy over the essential oil safrole found in sassafras, it is recommended to not use this herb for longer than one month a year in moderate amounts.

The traditional diet of Native Americans included hazelnuts as well which have numerous health benefits. Hazelnuts are a good source of protein, fiber, vitamin E, iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Likewise, hazelnuts contain significant amounts of carotenoids, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins which protect against urinary tract infections, heart disease, and cancer. Folate is found in high concentration, protecting against Alzheimer's, depression, and birth defects.

Andean Condors are the national bird of Bolivia, Colombia, Chile and Peru and play important roles in folklore and mythology of South America. The Andean Condor's diet consists mainly of carrion and occasionally sick or young animals. It feeds on dead deer, squirrels, mice, rabbits and other small mammals. The Piranha (Pygocentrus Piraya) is a carnivorous sweet water fish that lives mainly in the Amazon Basin of South America. The best two known species are the Green Anaconda (Eunectes murinus) and the Yellow Anaconda (Eunectes notaeus). Their habitat are the swamps and rivers of the dense forests from the Amazon Basin. Anacondas are carnivorous. Their diet exists of capybaras and other large rodents, tapirs, deer, peccaries, fish, turtles, birds, sheep, dogs and aquatic reptiles. Anacondas occasionally prey on jaguars. The capybara is a semi-aquatic herbivorous animal and the largest of living rodents. It is native to most of the tropical and temperate parts of South America east of the Andes. The Giant Tortoise is an animal that can only be found on the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador).

The Age of Aquarius

The Age of Aquarius is causing great turmoil, to make room for the new values of love, brotherhood, unity and integrity. Everything with Piscean values is being exposed and taken down. This includes governments, corporations, individuals, and even personal relationships. Many call this a disaster, as the world appears to be falling apart, but is it? The Aquarian Age points to the direction of our own evolution in consciousness. We are each being asked to make a choice. We can cling to the old outdated values or adopt the new evolving ones. Our happiness and peace depends on our choice. The change will take place whether we like it or not.